Lex Imperfecta of Language Obligation and Conditioned Contracts
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Published
Jul 2, 2026
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Abstract
This study examines the fundamental paradox within the Indonesian legal regime arising from Article 31 paragraph (1) of Law Number 24 of 2009 on the Flag, Language, State Emblem, and National Anthem which mandates the use of the Indonesian language in agreements involving Indonesian parties yet provides no sanction mechanism for its violation. This condition renders the norm a lex imperfecta, a formally existing obligation that lacks coercive force, leaving linguistic sovereignty as an aspiration without real enforcement. The research employs a normative juridical method combining statutory and conceptual approaches, analyzing primary legal materials including the Civil Code, Law Number 24 of 2009, and relevant Supreme Court instruments. This study finds that the absence of sanctions generates two concurrent pathologies: at the theoretical level a normative vacuum undermines legal system coherence, and at the practical level it produces massive judicial disparity in the treatment of foreign language contracts. The institutional response through Supreme Court Circular Letter Number 3 of 2023 which introduces the criterion of bad faith as a threshold for contract cancellation lacks textual grounding in the law itself and constitutes an informal constitutional bypass exceeding judicial authority. This study proposes a legislative reform adopting two complementary frameworks, namely the doctrine of unenforceable contracts which distinguishes between void and suspended agreements, and the concept of Linguistically Conditioned Contracts wherein foreign language agreements remain legally recognized but their enforceability is suspended until language obligations are fulfilled within a court determined deadline. This framework upholds linguistic sovereignty as a valid public norm while preserving civil law certainty as the foundation of modern economic transactions.
Article Details
How to Cite
ZAIN, Ilham Muhammad; SURYA KUSUMA, Febrian Indar.
Lex Imperfecta of Language Obligation and Conditioned Contracts.
UNISKA LAW REVIEW, [S.l.], v. 6, n. 2, p. 194 - 224, july 2026.
ISSN 2774-5252.
Available at: <https://ejournal.uniska-kediri.ac.id/index.php/SJ/article/view/8954>. Date accessed: 12 july 2026.
doi: https://doi.org/10.32503/ulr.v6i2.8954.
Section
Articles
References
Book
Asshiddiqie, Jimly. Perihal Undang-Undang. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2017.
Hart, H L A. The Concept of Law. 3rd Editio. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Indrati, Maria Farida. Ilmu Perundang-Undangan: Jenis, Fungsi, Dan Materi Muatan. Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 2020.
Kelsen, Hans. Pure Theory of Law. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
Marzuki, Peter Mahmud. Penelitian Hukum (Edisi Revisi). Jakarta: Prenada Media Group, 2017.
Journals
Afda’u, Faisal, and Husnia Hilmi Wahyuni. “The Development of E-Commerce and Digital Transactions in The Dynamics Of Civil Law and Personal Data Protection Law.” UNISKA Law Review 6, no. 1 (2025). https://doi.org/10.32503/ulr.v6i1.8236.
Amin Amirudin, and Dwi Fidhayanti. “Ratio Decidendi of Judges’ Decisions on The Use of Foreign Language Agreements in Indonesia.” Journal of Judicial Review 27, no. 1 (2025): 23–50. https://doi.org/10.37253/jjr.v27i1.10405.
Anggraeni, Yustina, and Moh. Saleh Moh. Saleh. “The Use Of The Indonesian Language In International Contracts After The Circular Letter Of The Supreme Court Number 3 Of 2023 As Guidelines For The Implementation Of Duties For Courts.” Eduvest - Journal of Universal Studies 4, no. 5 (2024): 3938–47. https://doi.org/10.59188/eduvest.v4i5.1198.
Arifin, Ridwan, Juan Anthonio Kambuno, Waspiah, and Dian Latifiani. “Protecting the Consumer Rights in the Digital Economic Era: Future Challenges in Indonesia.” Jambura Law Review 3 (2021): 135–60. https://doi.org/10.33756/jlr.v3i0.9635.
Ayunda, Rahmi. “Personal Data Protection to E-Commerce Consumer: What Are the Legal Challenges and Certainties?” Law Reform: Jurnal Pembaharuan Hukum 18, no. 2 (2022): 144–63. https://doi.org/10.14710/lr.v18i2.43307.
Budiono, Herlien. “The Validity of Contracts Not Written in Indonesian Language after Law Number 24 of 2009.” Indonesia Law Review 3, no. 3 (2013). https://doi.org/10.15742/ilrev.v3n3.49.
Clack, Christopher D., Vikram A. Bakshi, and Lee Braine. “Smart Contract Templates: Foundations, Design Landscape and Research Directions.” ArXiv abs/1608.0 (2017). http://arxiv.org/abs/1608.00771.
Devi R, Siti, Edi Wahjuni, and Yusuf Adiwibowo. “Rental Agreements That Do Not Meet the Elements of a Halal Cause.” International Journal of Social Science and Education Research Studies 03, no. 10 (2023). https://doi.org/10.55677/ijssers/v03i10y2023-19.
Dwiono, Sugeng, A. Kumedi Ja’far, and Slamet Haryadi. “An Analysis on the Omnibus Law and Its Challenges in Indonesia: The Perspectives of the Constitutional and the Islamic Law.” Samarah 8, no. 2 (2024): 706–25. https://doi.org/10.22373/sjhk.v8i2.22720.
Dwivedi, Vimal, Alex Norta, Alexander Wulf, Benjamin Leiding, Sandeep Saxena, and Chibuzor Udokwu. “A Formal Specification Smart-Contract Language for Legally Binding Decentralized Autonomous Organizations.” IEEE Access 9 (2021): 76069–82. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3081926.
Herian, Robert. “Smart Contracts: A Remedial Analysis.” Information and Communications Technology Law 30, no. 1 (2021): 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2020.1807134.
Hidayati, Tri, Ajeng Hijriatul Aulia, and Risna Wendy Wiraganti. “The Application Of The Principle Of Judges Freedom On SEMA Number 2 Of 2023.” Al-Adl : Jurnal Hukum 16, no. 1 (January 27, 2024): 103. https://doi.org/10.31602/al-adl.v16i1.12790.
Kosasih, Johannes, and Yohanes Sirait. “Urgency in Using Indonesia Language on Business Contracts and Potency of Investment Dispute: The Study of Supreme Court Decision Number 601 K/Pdt/2015.” In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Emerging Issues in Humanity Studies and Social Sciences, 306–11. SCITEPRESS - Science and Technology Publications, 2021. https://doi.org/10.5220/0010751300003112.
Kurniawati, Diah, and Agung Prasetyo. “Mandatory Use of Indonesian Language in International Commercial Contracts: Legal Certainty and Practical Challenges.” Hasanuddin Law Review 9, no. 3 (2023). https://doi.org/10.20956/halrev.v9i3.4568.
Mangku, Dewa Gede Sudika, Ni Putu Rai Yuliartini, I. Nengah Suastika, and I. Gusti Made Arya Suta Wirawan. “The Personal Data Protection of Internet Users in Indonesia.” Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University 56, no. 1 (2021). https://doi.org/10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.1.23.
Marischa, Diva, and Reni Budi Setianingrum. “Transfer of Personal Data by E-Commerce Companies: A Study From The Perspective of Indonesian Personal Data Protection Laws.” Ikatan Penulis Mahasiswa Hukum Indonesia Law Journal 4, no. 1 (January 11, 2024): 48–64. https://doi.org/10.15294/ipmhi.v4i1.78267.
Marune, Abraham Ethan Martupa Sahat, and Brandon Hartanto. “Strengthening Personal Data Protection, Cyber Security, and Improving Public Awareness in Indonesia: Progressive Legal Perspective.” International Journal of Business, Economics, and Social Development 2, no. 4 (2021): 143–52. https://doi.org/10.46336/ijbesd.v2i4.170.
Noor, Afif. “Socio-Legal Research: Integration of Normative and Empirical Juridical Research in Legal Research.” Jurnal Ilmiah Dunia Hukum 7, no. 2 (2023): 94. https://doi.org/10.56444/jidh.v7i2.3154.
Nugraha, Xavier. “Ambiguity of Sanctions in Article 31 of Law Number 24 of 2009 and Its Implications for Legal Certainty.” Jurnal RechtsVinding 11, no. 1 (2022). https://doi.org/10.33331/rechtsvinding.v11i1.873.
Nugroho, Eko Rial, and Mahrus Ali. “The Use of Foreign Language in a Contract and Its Relevance on the Annulment of an Indonesian Arbitral Award.” International Journal of Law and Politics Studies 4, no. 2 (2022): 157–64. https://doi.org/10.32996/ijlps.2022.4.2.17.
Parvizimosaed, Alireza, Sepehr Sharifi, Daniel Amyot, Luigi Logrippo, Marco Roveri, Aidin Rasti, Ali Roudak, and John Mylopoulos. “Specification and Analysis of Legal Contracts with Symboleo.” Software and Systems Modeling 21, no. 6 (2022): 2395–2427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10270-022-01053-6.
Penasthika, Priskila Pratita. “The Mandatory Use of National Language in Indonesia and Belgium: An Obstacle To International Contracting?” Indonesia Law Review 9, no. 2 (2019): 83–107. https://doi.org/10.15742/ilrev.v9n2.537.
Prastyanti, Rina Arum, and Ridhima Sharma. “Establishing Consumer Trust Through Data Protection Law as a Competitive Advantage in Indonesia and India.” Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System 4, no. 2 (2024): 354–90. https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v4i2.200.
Purwadi, Hari, Sapto Hermawan, Ardyllis Alves Soares, Zsôfia Németh-Szebeni, and Febrian Indar Surya Kusuma. “Resolving the Judiciary Tensions between the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Court of Indonesia.” Journal of Indonesian Legal Studies 9, no. 1 (2024): 317–52. https://doi.org/10.15294/jils.vol9i1.4635.
Putra, Ida Bagus Sudarma. “Community Legal Awareness and Customary Sanction to Prevent Littering: How Penglipuran Village in Bali Makes Efforts?”.” Udayana Journal of Law and Culture 6, no. 1 (2022): 23–41. https://doi.org/10.24843/UJLC.2022.v06.i01.p02.
Santoso, Edy. “Opportunities and Challenges: E-Commerce in Indonesia from a Legal Perspective.” Jurnal Penelitian Hukum De Jure 22, no. 3 (2022): 395–410. https://doi.org/10.30641/dejure.2022.v22.395-410.
Sembiring, Sentosa. “Legal Consequences of the Use of Foreign Language in Commercial Contracts in Indonesia.” Hasanuddin Law Review 4, no. 1 (2018). https://doi.org/10.20956/halrev.v4i1.1297.
Sharifi, Sepehr, Alireza Parvizimosaed, Daniel Amyot, Luigi Logrippo, and John Mylopoulos. “Symboleo: Towards a Specification Language for Legal Contracts.” In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Requirements Engineering, 2020-Augus:364–69, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1109/RE48521.2020.00049.
Shcherbanyuk, Oksana, Vіtalii Gordieiev, and Laura Bzova. “Legal Nature of the Principle of Legal Certainty as a Component Element of the Rule of Law.” Juridical Tribune 13, no. 1 (2023): 21–31. https://doi.org/10.24818/TBJ/2023/13/1.02.
Siregar, Andhika Putra. “Lex Imperfecta and the Problem of Sanctionless Norms in Indonesian Legislative System.” Jurnal Konstitusi 20, no. 2 (2023). https://doi.org/10.31078/jk2023.2.7.
Sri Maryati, Hudzaifah Achmad, Adang Darmawan Achmad, and Mohd Anuar Ramli. “The Dynamic Landscape of Interfaith Marriage in Indonesia: Navigating The Supreme Court Circular Letter (SEMA) No. 02 of 2023 and Population Administration Law.” Daengku: Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Innovation 4, no. 3 (2024): 489–502. https://doi.org/10.35877/454ri.daengku2613.
Steuer, Max. “Rule of Law Minimalism and the Fear of ‘Politics’: The Slovak Constitutional Court amidst the Illiberal Surge.” International Journal for the Semiotics of Law - Revue Internationale de Sémiotique Juridique 39, no. 1 (January 20, 2026): 103–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-025-10341-5.
Sudarwanto, Al Sentot, and Dona Budi Budi Kharisma. “Comparative Study of Personal Data Protection Regulations in Indonesia, Hong Kong and Malaysia.” Journal of Financial Crime, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-09-2021-0193.
Suparto, and Zulkifli. “Position of Circular Letter of the Supreme Court As a Follow-Up From the Decision of the Constitutional Court Number 37/Puu-Ix/2011.” Awang Long Law Review 5, no. 1 (2022): 225–34. https://doi.org/10.56301/awl.v5i1.554.
Suyudi, Aria, and Henry Soelistyo Budi. “Reconsidering The Mandatory Use Of Indonesian Language In Private Commercial Contract.” Global Legal Review 2, no. 2 (October 31, 2022): 185. https://doi.org/10.19166/glr.v2i2.4997.
Wicaksono, Aditya Yuli. “Kekuatan Mengikat Kewajiban Penggunaan Bahasa Indonesia Dalam Perjanjian Dengan Pihak Asing.” Jurnal RechtsVinding 10, no. 3 (2021). https://doi.org/10.33331/rechtsvinding.v10i3.781.
Widjaja, Gunawan. “Hukum Perdata Di Era Digital: Perlindungan Data Pribadi Dan Kontrak Elektronik Dalam Transformasi Teknologi.” Berajah Journal 6, no. 1 (2025). https://doi.org/10.47353/bj.v6i1.182.
Wijatmoko, Erlan, Armaidy Armawi, and Teuku Faisal Fathani. “Legal Effectiveness in Promoting Development Policies: A Case Study of North Aceh Indonesia.” Heliyon 9, no. 11 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21280.
Winarno, H. “Metode Penelitian Hukum Normatif Dan Penerapannya Dalam Studi Yuridis Di Indonesia.” Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan 52, no. 1 (2022): 77–89.
Regulation
Undang-Undang Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 tentang Bendera, Bahasa, dan Lambang Negara, serta Lagu Kebangsaan (2009).
“Surat Edaran Mahkamah Agung Nomor 3 Tahun 2023 Tentang Pemberlakuan Rumusan Hasil Rapat Pleno Kamar Mahkamah Agung Tahun 2023 Sebagai Pedoman Pelaksanaan Tugas Bagi Pengadilan,” 2023.
Asshiddiqie, Jimly. Perihal Undang-Undang. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2017.
Hart, H L A. The Concept of Law. 3rd Editio. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Indrati, Maria Farida. Ilmu Perundang-Undangan: Jenis, Fungsi, Dan Materi Muatan. Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 2020.
Kelsen, Hans. Pure Theory of Law. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
Marzuki, Peter Mahmud. Penelitian Hukum (Edisi Revisi). Jakarta: Prenada Media Group, 2017.
Journals
Afda’u, Faisal, and Husnia Hilmi Wahyuni. “The Development of E-Commerce and Digital Transactions in The Dynamics Of Civil Law and Personal Data Protection Law.” UNISKA Law Review 6, no. 1 (2025). https://doi.org/10.32503/ulr.v6i1.8236.
Amin Amirudin, and Dwi Fidhayanti. “Ratio Decidendi of Judges’ Decisions on The Use of Foreign Language Agreements in Indonesia.” Journal of Judicial Review 27, no. 1 (2025): 23–50. https://doi.org/10.37253/jjr.v27i1.10405.
Anggraeni, Yustina, and Moh. Saleh Moh. Saleh. “The Use Of The Indonesian Language In International Contracts After The Circular Letter Of The Supreme Court Number 3 Of 2023 As Guidelines For The Implementation Of Duties For Courts.” Eduvest - Journal of Universal Studies 4, no. 5 (2024): 3938–47. https://doi.org/10.59188/eduvest.v4i5.1198.
Arifin, Ridwan, Juan Anthonio Kambuno, Waspiah, and Dian Latifiani. “Protecting the Consumer Rights in the Digital Economic Era: Future Challenges in Indonesia.” Jambura Law Review 3 (2021): 135–60. https://doi.org/10.33756/jlr.v3i0.9635.
Ayunda, Rahmi. “Personal Data Protection to E-Commerce Consumer: What Are the Legal Challenges and Certainties?” Law Reform: Jurnal Pembaharuan Hukum 18, no. 2 (2022): 144–63. https://doi.org/10.14710/lr.v18i2.43307.
Budiono, Herlien. “The Validity of Contracts Not Written in Indonesian Language after Law Number 24 of 2009.” Indonesia Law Review 3, no. 3 (2013). https://doi.org/10.15742/ilrev.v3n3.49.
Clack, Christopher D., Vikram A. Bakshi, and Lee Braine. “Smart Contract Templates: Foundations, Design Landscape and Research Directions.” ArXiv abs/1608.0 (2017). http://arxiv.org/abs/1608.00771.
Devi R, Siti, Edi Wahjuni, and Yusuf Adiwibowo. “Rental Agreements That Do Not Meet the Elements of a Halal Cause.” International Journal of Social Science and Education Research Studies 03, no. 10 (2023). https://doi.org/10.55677/ijssers/v03i10y2023-19.
Dwiono, Sugeng, A. Kumedi Ja’far, and Slamet Haryadi. “An Analysis on the Omnibus Law and Its Challenges in Indonesia: The Perspectives of the Constitutional and the Islamic Law.” Samarah 8, no. 2 (2024): 706–25. https://doi.org/10.22373/sjhk.v8i2.22720.
Dwivedi, Vimal, Alex Norta, Alexander Wulf, Benjamin Leiding, Sandeep Saxena, and Chibuzor Udokwu. “A Formal Specification Smart-Contract Language for Legally Binding Decentralized Autonomous Organizations.” IEEE Access 9 (2021): 76069–82. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3081926.
Herian, Robert. “Smart Contracts: A Remedial Analysis.” Information and Communications Technology Law 30, no. 1 (2021): 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2020.1807134.
Hidayati, Tri, Ajeng Hijriatul Aulia, and Risna Wendy Wiraganti. “The Application Of The Principle Of Judges Freedom On SEMA Number 2 Of 2023.” Al-Adl : Jurnal Hukum 16, no. 1 (January 27, 2024): 103. https://doi.org/10.31602/al-adl.v16i1.12790.
Kosasih, Johannes, and Yohanes Sirait. “Urgency in Using Indonesia Language on Business Contracts and Potency of Investment Dispute: The Study of Supreme Court Decision Number 601 K/Pdt/2015.” In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Emerging Issues in Humanity Studies and Social Sciences, 306–11. SCITEPRESS - Science and Technology Publications, 2021. https://doi.org/10.5220/0010751300003112.
Kurniawati, Diah, and Agung Prasetyo. “Mandatory Use of Indonesian Language in International Commercial Contracts: Legal Certainty and Practical Challenges.” Hasanuddin Law Review 9, no. 3 (2023). https://doi.org/10.20956/halrev.v9i3.4568.
Mangku, Dewa Gede Sudika, Ni Putu Rai Yuliartini, I. Nengah Suastika, and I. Gusti Made Arya Suta Wirawan. “The Personal Data Protection of Internet Users in Indonesia.” Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University 56, no. 1 (2021). https://doi.org/10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.1.23.
Marischa, Diva, and Reni Budi Setianingrum. “Transfer of Personal Data by E-Commerce Companies: A Study From The Perspective of Indonesian Personal Data Protection Laws.” Ikatan Penulis Mahasiswa Hukum Indonesia Law Journal 4, no. 1 (January 11, 2024): 48–64. https://doi.org/10.15294/ipmhi.v4i1.78267.
Marune, Abraham Ethan Martupa Sahat, and Brandon Hartanto. “Strengthening Personal Data Protection, Cyber Security, and Improving Public Awareness in Indonesia: Progressive Legal Perspective.” International Journal of Business, Economics, and Social Development 2, no. 4 (2021): 143–52. https://doi.org/10.46336/ijbesd.v2i4.170.
Noor, Afif. “Socio-Legal Research: Integration of Normative and Empirical Juridical Research in Legal Research.” Jurnal Ilmiah Dunia Hukum 7, no. 2 (2023): 94. https://doi.org/10.56444/jidh.v7i2.3154.
Nugraha, Xavier. “Ambiguity of Sanctions in Article 31 of Law Number 24 of 2009 and Its Implications for Legal Certainty.” Jurnal RechtsVinding 11, no. 1 (2022). https://doi.org/10.33331/rechtsvinding.v11i1.873.
Nugroho, Eko Rial, and Mahrus Ali. “The Use of Foreign Language in a Contract and Its Relevance on the Annulment of an Indonesian Arbitral Award.” International Journal of Law and Politics Studies 4, no. 2 (2022): 157–64. https://doi.org/10.32996/ijlps.2022.4.2.17.
Parvizimosaed, Alireza, Sepehr Sharifi, Daniel Amyot, Luigi Logrippo, Marco Roveri, Aidin Rasti, Ali Roudak, and John Mylopoulos. “Specification and Analysis of Legal Contracts with Symboleo.” Software and Systems Modeling 21, no. 6 (2022): 2395–2427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10270-022-01053-6.
Penasthika, Priskila Pratita. “The Mandatory Use of National Language in Indonesia and Belgium: An Obstacle To International Contracting?” Indonesia Law Review 9, no. 2 (2019): 83–107. https://doi.org/10.15742/ilrev.v9n2.537.
Prastyanti, Rina Arum, and Ridhima Sharma. “Establishing Consumer Trust Through Data Protection Law as a Competitive Advantage in Indonesia and India.” Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System 4, no. 2 (2024): 354–90. https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v4i2.200.
Purwadi, Hari, Sapto Hermawan, Ardyllis Alves Soares, Zsôfia Németh-Szebeni, and Febrian Indar Surya Kusuma. “Resolving the Judiciary Tensions between the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Court of Indonesia.” Journal of Indonesian Legal Studies 9, no. 1 (2024): 317–52. https://doi.org/10.15294/jils.vol9i1.4635.
Putra, Ida Bagus Sudarma. “Community Legal Awareness and Customary Sanction to Prevent Littering: How Penglipuran Village in Bali Makes Efforts?”.” Udayana Journal of Law and Culture 6, no. 1 (2022): 23–41. https://doi.org/10.24843/UJLC.2022.v06.i01.p02.
Santoso, Edy. “Opportunities and Challenges: E-Commerce in Indonesia from a Legal Perspective.” Jurnal Penelitian Hukum De Jure 22, no. 3 (2022): 395–410. https://doi.org/10.30641/dejure.2022.v22.395-410.
Sembiring, Sentosa. “Legal Consequences of the Use of Foreign Language in Commercial Contracts in Indonesia.” Hasanuddin Law Review 4, no. 1 (2018). https://doi.org/10.20956/halrev.v4i1.1297.
Sharifi, Sepehr, Alireza Parvizimosaed, Daniel Amyot, Luigi Logrippo, and John Mylopoulos. “Symboleo: Towards a Specification Language for Legal Contracts.” In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Requirements Engineering, 2020-Augus:364–69, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1109/RE48521.2020.00049.
Shcherbanyuk, Oksana, Vіtalii Gordieiev, and Laura Bzova. “Legal Nature of the Principle of Legal Certainty as a Component Element of the Rule of Law.” Juridical Tribune 13, no. 1 (2023): 21–31. https://doi.org/10.24818/TBJ/2023/13/1.02.
Siregar, Andhika Putra. “Lex Imperfecta and the Problem of Sanctionless Norms in Indonesian Legislative System.” Jurnal Konstitusi 20, no. 2 (2023). https://doi.org/10.31078/jk2023.2.7.
Sri Maryati, Hudzaifah Achmad, Adang Darmawan Achmad, and Mohd Anuar Ramli. “The Dynamic Landscape of Interfaith Marriage in Indonesia: Navigating The Supreme Court Circular Letter (SEMA) No. 02 of 2023 and Population Administration Law.” Daengku: Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Innovation 4, no. 3 (2024): 489–502. https://doi.org/10.35877/454ri.daengku2613.
Steuer, Max. “Rule of Law Minimalism and the Fear of ‘Politics’: The Slovak Constitutional Court amidst the Illiberal Surge.” International Journal for the Semiotics of Law - Revue Internationale de Sémiotique Juridique 39, no. 1 (January 20, 2026): 103–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-025-10341-5.
Sudarwanto, Al Sentot, and Dona Budi Budi Kharisma. “Comparative Study of Personal Data Protection Regulations in Indonesia, Hong Kong and Malaysia.” Journal of Financial Crime, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFC-09-2021-0193.
Suparto, and Zulkifli. “Position of Circular Letter of the Supreme Court As a Follow-Up From the Decision of the Constitutional Court Number 37/Puu-Ix/2011.” Awang Long Law Review 5, no. 1 (2022): 225–34. https://doi.org/10.56301/awl.v5i1.554.
Suyudi, Aria, and Henry Soelistyo Budi. “Reconsidering The Mandatory Use Of Indonesian Language In Private Commercial Contract.” Global Legal Review 2, no. 2 (October 31, 2022): 185. https://doi.org/10.19166/glr.v2i2.4997.
Wicaksono, Aditya Yuli. “Kekuatan Mengikat Kewajiban Penggunaan Bahasa Indonesia Dalam Perjanjian Dengan Pihak Asing.” Jurnal RechtsVinding 10, no. 3 (2021). https://doi.org/10.33331/rechtsvinding.v10i3.781.
Widjaja, Gunawan. “Hukum Perdata Di Era Digital: Perlindungan Data Pribadi Dan Kontrak Elektronik Dalam Transformasi Teknologi.” Berajah Journal 6, no. 1 (2025). https://doi.org/10.47353/bj.v6i1.182.
Wijatmoko, Erlan, Armaidy Armawi, and Teuku Faisal Fathani. “Legal Effectiveness in Promoting Development Policies: A Case Study of North Aceh Indonesia.” Heliyon 9, no. 11 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21280.
Winarno, H. “Metode Penelitian Hukum Normatif Dan Penerapannya Dalam Studi Yuridis Di Indonesia.” Jurnal Hukum & Pembangunan 52, no. 1 (2022): 77–89.
Regulation
Undang-Undang Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 tentang Bendera, Bahasa, dan Lambang Negara, serta Lagu Kebangsaan (2009).
“Surat Edaran Mahkamah Agung Nomor 3 Tahun 2023 Tentang Pemberlakuan Rumusan Hasil Rapat Pleno Kamar Mahkamah Agung Tahun 2023 Sebagai Pedoman Pelaksanaan Tugas Bagi Pengadilan,” 2023.